An annotated bibliography gives an account of the research that has been done on a given topic. Like any bibliography, an annotated bibliography is an alphabetical list of research sources. In addition to bibliographic data, an annotated bibliography provides a concise summary of each source and some assessment of its value or relevance. Depending on your assignment, an annotated bibliography may be one stage in a larger research project, or it may be an independent project standing on its own.

Selecting the Sources:

The quality and usefulness of your bibliography will depend on your selection of sources.

Define the scope of your research carefully so that you can make good judgments about what to include and exclude. Your research should attempt to be reasonably comprehensive within well-defined boundaries. Consider these questions to help you find appropriate limits for your research:

• What problem am I investigating? What question(s) am I trying to pursue? If your bibliography is part of a research project, this project will probably be governed by a research question. If your bibliography is an independent project on a general topic (e.g., aboriginal women and Canadian law), try formulating your topic as a question or a series of questions in order to define your search more precisely ( e.g., How has Canadian law affecting aboriginal women changed as a result of the Charter of Rights and Freedoms? How have these changes affected aboriginal women? How have aboriginal women influenced and responded to these legal developments?).
• What kind of material am I looking for? (academic books and journal articles? government reports or policy statements? articles from the popular press? primary historical sources? etc.)
• Am I finding essential studies on my topic? (Read footnotes in useful articles carefully to see what sources they use and why. Keep an eye out for studies that are referred to by several of your sources.)

Summarizing the Argument of a Source:

An annotation briefly restates the main argument of a source. An annotation of an academic source, for example, typically identifies its thesis (or research question, or hypothesis), its major methods of investigation, and its main conclusions. Keep in mind that identifying the argument of a source is a different task than describing or listing its contents. Rather than listing contents (Example 1 below), an annotation should account for why the contents are there (Example 2).

The following reading strategies can help you to identify the argument of a source:

• Identify the author’s thesis (central claim or purpose) or research question. Both the introduction and the conclusion can help you with this task.
• Look for repetition of key terms or ideas. Follow them through the text and see what the author does with them. Note especially the key terms that occur in the thesis or research question that governs the text.
• Notice how the text is laid out and organized. What are the main divisions or sections? What is emphasized? Why? Accounting for why will help you to move beyond listing contents and toward giving an account of argument.
• Notice whether and how a theory is used to interpret evidence or data. Identify the method used to investigate the problem(s) addressed in the text.
• Pay attention to the opening sentence(s) of each paragraph, where authors often state concisely their main point in the paragraph.
• Look for paragraphs that summarize the argument. A section may sometimes begin or conclude with such a paragraph.

Assessing the Relevance and Value of Sources:

Your annotation should now go on to briefly assess the value of the source to an investigation of your research question or problem. If your bibliography is part of a research project, briefly identify how you intend to use the source and why. If your bibliography is an independent project, try to assess the source’s contribution to the research on your topic.

• Are you interested in the way the source frames its research question or in the way it goes about answering it (its method)? Does it make new connections or open up new ways of seeing a problem? (e.g., bringing the Sparrow decision concerning aboriginal fishing rights to bear on the scope of women’s rights)
• Are you interested in the way the source uses a theoretical framework or a key concept? (e.g., analysis of existing, extinguished, and other kinds of rights)
• Does the source gather and analyze a particular body of evidence that you want to use? (e.g., the historical development of a body of legislation)
• How do the source’s conclusions bear on your own investigation?

In order to determine how you will use the source or define its contribution, you will need to assess the quality of the argument: why is it of value? what are its limitations? how well defined is its research problem? how effective is its method of investigation? how good is the evidence? would you draw the same conclusions from the evidence?

Keep the context of your project in mind. How is material assessed in your course or discipline? What models for assessing arguments are available in course materials?

Various Kinds of Annotated Bibliographies:

Annotated bibliographies do come in many variations. Pay close attention to the requirements of your assignment. Here are some possible variations:

• Some assignments may require you to summarize only and not to evaluate.
• Some assignments may want you to notice and comment on patterns of similarity and dissimilarity between sources; other assignments may want you to treat each source independently.
• If the bibliography is long, consider organizing it in sections. Your categories of organization should help clarify your research question.
• Some assignments may require or allow you to preface the bibliography (or its sections) with a paragraph explaining the scope of your investigation and providing a rationale for your selection of sources.

Some Language for Talking about Texts and Arguments:

It is sometimes challenging to find vocabulary in which to summarize and discuss a text. Here is a list of some verbs for referring to texts and ideas that you might find useful:

©2007, Deborah Knott. Based on material originally developed for the Equity Studies Program,

New College, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

What is a Critical Argument?

An “argument” is a logically connected series of reasons, statements, or facts (evidence) used to support or establish an idea or point of view (a claim; see Huth, 1990, p.56).  The purpose of argument is to persuade the reader to accept the claim as true, and/or to undertake some action.

To be “critical” is to analyze and evaluate ideas and evidence. The purpose is to understand the strengths and limitations of research, theory or practice for both its stated purpose and your own topic.

Arguments are frameworks designed to help us approach solutions to difficult problems. Critical argument allows us to judge the strengths and weaknesses of our options in a logical fashion.

A critical argument is NOT a set of unsupported opinions. For example, the claim that “Pharmacy is the best profession in the world” cannot be argued. It reflects the writer’s personal definition of “best,” which no amount of evidence could prove. On the other hand, a claim such as “Pharmacists are essential members of the health care team” can be argued—by defining in what ways and to whom pharmacists are essential, and by providing supporting examples.

We can argue deductively (start with a general principle and deduce consequences and applications) or inductively (start with facts or situations and infer a general principle). Another way to understand deductive and inductive reasoning is this:

• in deductive argument, we advance an idea and support it with evidence;
• in inductive argument, we start with the evidence and interpret it to come up with an idea.

Writing that manipulates data technically (such as a lab report) or mathematically (such as statistical analysis) relies on deductive argument. Outside of the realm of mathematical proof, however, most written argument is primarily inductive. In research writing, for example, researchers use statistical analysis to deduce the significance of their results. Then, however, they interpret the evidence (the significance) to argue for a particular answer (e.g., their research hypothesis) to their question or issue. This is an inductive process.

See below for an explanation of the basics of formal logic.

Some Features of Well-written Arguments

• They are constructed logically. That is, they are coherent and have a logical flow.
• They have an appropriate balance of ideas and evidence.
• They can be summarized clearly and briefly (e.g., in a thesis statement, or in an abstract).

Well-written arguments are constructed logically. That is, they are coherent and have a logical flow.

Any written argument can be broken down, or “deconstructed,” to reveal its logical underpinnings. Here is an example of writing that advances a persuasive and logically structured argument, followed by its deconstruction. It was written by a graduate student seeking renewal of a grant:

My project within the laboratory is to investigate the role of TNF∀ in aneurysm formation. Specifically, I will determine the role of TNF∀ in smooth muscle cell apoptosis as a mechanism leading to aneurysm formation. My hypothesis is that TNF∀ is necessary for development of coronary artery lesions in an animal model of Kawasaki Disease (KD). First, I will delineate the kinetics of TNF∀ production during disease evolution using real-time reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction. I will also determine the requirement for TNF∀ in the early immune response, both by using genetically-modified animals with mutations in the TNF∀ p55 receptor and by using a soluble TNF∀ receptor to try to ameliorate the disease early in its course, thus mimicking treatment in the acute phase in children with KD. Secondly, I will examine the affected organ (heart) both in a whole animal model and in an ex-vivo coronary artery organ culture system to determine the role of TNF∀ in apoptosis of various vessel wall components. To date, I have mastered the fundamental techniques in basic immunology and basic molecular biology required to answer my research questions, and look forward to exciting results in the near future.

Using Language to Build an Argument

We use language to build and strengthen our arguments through

• Key words and concepts repeated and added to in a logical sequence
• Connectors: transitional words and phrases that establish relationships such as addition, contrast, comparison, causation. Click here for a list of useful transitions.

This next example is part of the introduction to a policy analysis. The sentence identifies the main argument (the “central claim”) of the paper, and lists the three factors that the analysis focuses on:

In the 1990s, several factors led to a reduction in long-term care services in the Greater Toronto Area: cuts in provincial funding, changes in societal attitudes, and the new market economy.

In the body of the policy analysis, the writer develops the same information into a paragraph that advances an argument. The writer creates a causal chain of argument by repeating the key words of the introduction, logically connected into a sequence of claims and evidence:

In the mid-1990s, the provincial government was influenced by the model of the new market economy and [addition] sought a rationale for cutting its funding of social programs. Thus, [causation] it took advantage of a recent hardening of societal attitudes to accelerate its cuts to these services. As a result, [causation] long-term care services in the GTA were cut by 20% in 1998, as compared with [comparison] a 5% cut in 1997.

Final Example

To bring together everything this Guide has said, let’s take a weak argument and revise it. This example is the first paragraph of a research report. You’ll notice, among its other weaknesses, that it contains key words but no logical connectors.

1. During the last few decades the interest in fine particulates has increased dramatically. 2.Many studies have shown that there are negative effects of air pollution on human health. 3. Knowledge is growing about the composition of air pollution, mechanisms of toxicity and susceptible populations. 4. This study is one of the attempts to understand how fine particulates and ozone might interfere with the autonomic regulation of heart.

1. The key concepts of this sentence are vague: what does “dramatically” mean? How long is “a few decades”—twenty years? fifty years? It’s okay to be broad in a first sentence, but not vague. “Fine particulates,” on the other hand, is too specific for a first sentence.
2. This sentence introduces the broader topic of air pollution and human health, which is good, but it would be better to move from broad to specific (air pollution to fine particulates) rather than from specific to broad.
3. There are specific details in this sentence, which is good, but the reader is left unsure whether the current study is on air pollution or fine particulates. This is also the third sentence in a row that makes vague statements about the literature (interest; many studies; knowledge is growing).
4. In this sentence the writer leaps back to the topic of fine particulates. Meanwhile, both ozone and autonomic regulation of heart appear from nowhere.

Now let’s revise. We’ll set up a sequence of key words and logical connectors to create a persuasive argument:

1. Many studies (e.g., 1-6) have shown that air pollution has negative effects on human health.   2. Further, knowledge is growing about the composition of air pollution, mechanics of toxicity and susceptible populations.  3. In particular, a number of recent studies (7-11) have focused on  the effects of fine particulates and ozone.  4. However, no research has been conducted to link fine particulates and ozone with the autonomic regulation of the heart, despite clinical evidence that such a link might exist.  5. Thus, this study was designed to explore the mechanisms by which fine particulates and ozone might interfere with autonomic regulation of the heart.

1-3. The key concepts in the first three sentences move logically, from a broad idea (air pollution and human health) to more specific aspects about our understanding of air pollution (composition, toxicity and susceptible populations), to the particular topic of the study (fine particulates and ozone).

4. This sentence identifies (however) a gap in our understanding. It links fine particulates and ozone with the autonomic regulation of the heart. Notice that I’ve added a rationale for the current research (clinical evidence). The original paragraph didn’t offer any reason why we would want to investigate these things.

5. This sentence makes the final links that connect the study with fine particulates/ozone and autonomic regulation of the heart.

Basics of Formal Logic

A deductive argument advances from a set problem and will produce a “right” or “wrong” answer (Felder, 1988). The basic form of deductive reasoning is the logical syllogism. Here is a classic example of sound logic:

	major premise:	All mammals are warm-blooded animals.
	minor premise:	Whales are mammals.
	conclusion:	Therefore, whales are warm-blooded animals.

In appraising the soundness of a deductive argument, we ask these questions:

• Are all the premises true (or do they at least seem to be true)? If one or more of the premises is false, then the conclusion cannot be known to be true on the basis of those premises, even if the logical structure of the argument is valid: 

	major premise:	All mammals can fly.
	minor premise:	Whales are mammals.
	conclusion:	Therefore, whales can fly.

• Is the argument logically valid? Given the truth of the premises, does the conclusion really follow from the premises? If not, why not?

	major premise:	All hospitals have beds.
	minor premise:	The Four Seasons Hotel has beds.
	conclusion:	Therefore, the Four Seasons Hotel is a hospital.
	This example is a non sequitur (literally, “it does not follow”). Just because all hospitals have beds, it does not follow that all buildings with beds are hospitals.

In an inductive argument, the writer defines the problem, then locates and defends the information that leads us to a “best” solution (Felder, 1988). Whereas deductive reasoning can be used to establish proof, inductive reasoning establishes levels of probability.  I might tell you, for example, that I have been a moderate social drinker for 20 years.  No one has ever seen me intoxicated. You might conclude that I won’t get drunk at the party tonight and you ask me to drive you home.  Here, the premises are true and the argument is valid, but the conclusion isn’t necessarily true. Maybe tonight’s the night I suddenly develop a love of beer.  It’s highly probable that I’ll stay sober, but not certain.

Sources

Felder, R. M. (1988). Learning and teaching styles in Engineering education. Engineering Education 78(7), 674-681.  Retrieved with Preface (2002) February 16, 2006, from http://www.ncsu.edu/felder-public/Papers/LS-1988.pdf.

Huth, E.J. (1990).  How to Write and Publish Papers in the Medical Sciences.  (2nd ed.)  Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins.

Klemke, E. D., Kline, D., & Hollinger, R. (1990). Philosophy: The basic issues.  NY: St. Martin’s Press. pp.19-24.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

Evidence-based Practice
Producing and presenting an evidence-based report:

Defining the problem
Search for the evidence
Select the best evidence only
Present and write-up your findings under headings

Appendix 1: List of potential sources of articles
Appendix 2: Abstracting the evidence for an intervention study
Appendix 3: Checklists to aid in critically appraising studies presenting evidence on health care:

Prevalence and Incidence (Descriptive or Longitudinal Studies)
Causation
Diagnostic or Predictive Test
Efficacy of Therapy or Prevention
Economic Analysis
Review Article
Clinical Practice Guideline (CPG)
Decision Analysis

Use present tense:
1.  To describe something that is happening now:

• Appendix A summarizes the results of the survey.

2.  To describe published research, articles or books whose conclusions you believe are currently valid and relevant. It doesn’t matter whether the publication is recent or centuries old:

• Malone (2003) discusses nursing care in the context of nested proximities.
• In her Notes on Nursing (1860), Florence Nightingale includes practices for cleanliness and observation of the sick.

3.  To indicate a general truth or fact, a general law, or a conclusion supported by research results.  In other words, something that is believed to be always true:

• The provincial government regulates the delivery of health care. [fact]
• For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. [law]
• Our results demonstrate that cimetidine can improve mean fat absorption in adolescents with cystic fibrosis. [conclusion]

4.  To describe an apparatus (because it always works the same way):

• This temperature gauge gives an accurate reading in all weather conditions.

5.  To state research objectives: [note: past tense is also commonly used]

• The purpose of this study is to examine imagery use by elite athletes.

B. Simple Past Tense

Use simple past tense:

1.  To describe something that began and ended in the past, e.g., the Methods or Results sections of a research report:

• We administered four doses daily to 27 participants for 14 days.
• The transgenic plants showed up to eight-fold PAL activity compared to control.

2.  To describe previous work on which the current work is based:

• Smith et al.’s (2005) study collected data on the drug’s effect in a pediatric population similar to ours.

3.  To describe a fact, law, or finding that is no longer considered valid and relevant:

• Nineteenth-century physicians held that women got migraines because they were “the weaker sex,” but current research shows that the causes of migraine are unrelated to gender.

Note the shift here from past tense (discredited belief) to present (current belief).

4.  To state research objectives: [note: present tense is also commonly used]

• The purpose of this study was to examine imagery use by elite athletes.

C. Perfect Tense

This tense is formed with the auxiliary [“helping”] verb have plus the main verb:

1.  Use a present perfect tense to describe something that began in the past and continues to the present:

• Hassanpour has studied the effects of radiation treatment since 1982 [and still does].
• Researchers have demonstrated a close link between smoking and morbidity rates.

2.  Use a past perfect tense to describe an action completed in the past before a specific past time:

• Nightingale had begun her reforms of nursing practice prior to the Crimean War.

D. Future Tense

Use future tense in outlines, proposals, and descriptions of future work:

• The proposed study will examine the effects of a new dosing regimen.  Twenty-seven participants will receive four doses daily for 14 days.

E. Progressive Tense

Use a progressive tense for an action or condition that began at some past time and is continuing now. It is formed from the auxiliary verb be plus a present participle. A progressive form emphasizes the continuing nature of the action:

• I am collecting data from three sites this month.

In places where conciseness is important (such as an abstract), it is often possible to use a simple verb form instead:

• With this new method, we are attempting to demonstrate….
• With this new method, we attempt to demonstrate….

F. Active and Passive Voice

Active (direct) voice: The normal pattern of English sentences is subject—verb—object, which we call active voice:

• Southern analysis indicated a single site of insertion.

Passive (indirect) voice reverses the order (object—verb—subject). Passive voice is constructed by using a form of the verb be followed by a past participle (-ed).  The phrase “by [the subject]” is included or implied:

• A single site of insertion was indicated by Southern analysis.
• Southern analysis was performed [by us] and a single site of insertion was indicated [by the analysis].

Use passive voice:

1.  to de-emphasize the subject in favour of what has been done:

• Red or blue outfits were randomly assigned to competitors in four elite sports.

2.  to discuss background that exists as part of the body of knowledge of the discipline, independent of the current author:

• Colour is thought to influence human mood, emotions and expressed aggression.

As a general principle, use active voice in preference to passive.  It is both more direct and more concise:

• Chen performed the experiment in 2006.
• The experiment was performed by Chen in 2006.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

  Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

1. Definition of a Critical Bibliography
2. Purpose
3. Characteristics
4. Identifying Perspective and Bias
5. Questions to Ask About:
   • Fundamentals
   • Methodology
   • Application

 A critical bibliography (also called an annotated bibliography)

• is a set of individual entries, generally of a page or less. Each entry identifies, briefly summarizes, and critically evaluates a study, article, or book.
• has an overall introduction to state the scope of your coverage and formulate the question, problem, or concept your chosen material illuminates.
• has an overall conclusion to sum up your conclusions about your chosen material.

 The purpose of a critical bibliography is to provide the reader with the following information about a set of studies, articles, or books:

• The full bibliographic information in proper APA reference style (unless another style is asked for)
• A summary of the contents.  In the case of a primary research study, the reader wants to know:
  • the purpose
  • type of study
  • methodology
  • results
• critical evaluation of the strengths, weaknesses, usefulness, and implications of the material for a specified enquiry or field or course of study.

 An entry in a critical bibliography must be

• precise
• self-contained, and
• informative

A critical bibliography is primarily a test of your critical appraisal skills:  can you analyze the central concepts and arguments of the material, as well as summarize its content, and provide a concise evaluation of its relevance and usefulness?  Readers who have no prior knowledge of the material must come away from your review with a clear sense of the contents and relevance of the article or book you’ve examined on their behalf.

 There is no such thing as a totally objective writer.  Everyone who writes has a particular angle from which they approach their topic.  Perhaps it’s

• a particular theoretical framework or model (e.g., a feminist model applied to issues of gender inequity in medical research), or
• a rhetorical purpose (e.g., a desire to persuade members of the general public to improve their health behaviours), or
• a practical perspective based on professional experience (e.g., the belief that one approach to pain management is more effective than another), or
• a bias that negatively affects your evaluation of the material (e.g., if the writer believes the world is flat, can you trust her description of the solar system?).

As you write, you will need to be conscious of at least two frames of reference:

1. the framework and perspective of the author of the book or article.  In the case of an edited book, there is another level:  the framework and perspective of the book’s editor
2. your own framework and perspective, your reason for writing the critical bibliography

  Fundamentals

• who is the audience this book or paper is written for?
• what are the issues being addressed? Are they clearly formulated? Is the significance (scope, severity, relevance) discussed?
• what and how useful is the organization of the material?
• is the material well or poorly written?
• what is the author’s perspective or bias?
• what is the author’s research perspective?
• what is the author’s theoretical framework? (e.g., psychoanalytic, cognitive-behavioral, feminist)
• what is the relationship between the theoretical and research frameworks?

Methodology

• how does the rhetoric/language address the particular audience of the book or article?
• what are the strengths and weaknesses of the arguments?
• what kinds of evidence are used to support the arguments, and how is evidence used? Are there alternative ways of arguing from the same material?
• how would you counter or support the arguments?
• in quantitative and qualitative research studies, how good is the fit between the research design and the conceptualization of the problem? between the hypothesis and the conclusions? what are the strengths and weaknesses of the study design (classic considerations of population, intervention, and outcome)?

Application

• what is the most effective application of the material?
• what further issues are raised as a result of the book or article?
• how does the book or article relate to the overall concerns of your course or field or research question?
• in what ways is the material useful for the theory or practice of your field?

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

  Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

Anderson, J. M. (1981). The social construction of the illness experience: Families with a chronically-ill child. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 6, 427-434.

Anderson, J. M. (1990). Home care management in chronic illness and the self-care movement: An analysis of ideologies and economic processes influencing policy decisions. Advances in Nursing Sciences, 12(2), 71-83.

Anderson, J. M., & Elfert, H. (1989). Managing chronic illness in the family: Women as caretakers. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 14, 735-743.

Arpin, K. E. (1981a). Behaviour in clinical practice of final year students in a baccalaureate programme. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto, Faculty of Nursing.

Arpin, K. E. (1981b). Joint-appointments: Strengthening clinical practice components in nursing education programmes. Nursing Papers, 13(2), 9–14.

Arpin, K. E., Barrett, M., Campbell, M. A., Charlebois, M., Geiger, E., McDermott, O., et al.  (1981). A model for nursing. Ottawa, Ontario: Canadian Nurses Association, CNA Testing Service.

Cahoon, M. C. (1985). Development of the knowledge base. In M. Stewart, J. Innes, S. Searl, & C. Smillie (Eds.), Community health nursing in Canada (pp. 605–661). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: Gage.

Cahoon, M. C., & O’Connor, A. (1980). An interactive model of the research process for the development and evaluation of multimedia teaching/learning modules. In R. C. MacKay & G. Zilm (Eds.), Research for practice: Proceedings of the National Nursing Research Conference (pp. 298–308). Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada: Dalhousie University, School of Nursing.

Canadian Nurses Association. (1996). On your own: The nurse entrepreneur in nursing now. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: Author.

Habermas, J. (1971a). Knowledge and human interests (J. J. Shapiro, Trans.). Boston: Beacon Press.

Habermas, J. (1971b). The scientization of  politics and public opinion. In J. Habermas (Ed.), Toward a rational society: Student protest, science and politics (J. J. Shapiro, Trans., pp. 62–80). London: Heinemann.  

Llewellyn-Thomas, H. A., Sutherland, H. J., Ciampi, A., Etezadi-Amoli, J., Boyd, N. F., & Till, J. E. (1984). The measurement of values in laryngeal cancer: Reliability of measurement methods. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 37, 283–291.

Llewellyn-Thomas, H. A., Sutherland, H. J., Ciampi, A., Hogg, S., Harwood, A., Keane, T., et al. (1984). Linear analogue self-assessment of voice quality in laryngeal cancer. Journal of Chronic Diseases, 37, 917–924. 

Llewellyn-Thomas, H. A., Sutherland, H. J., Etezadi-Amoli, J., & Till, J. E. (1983). Laryngeal cancer patients and their spouses: The assessment of values [Abstract]. Medical Decision Making, 3, 374. 

Material in this guide was prepared by Barbara Bauer, Faculty of Nursing, University of Toronto, September 2001.  

©2007, Barbara Bauer. All rights reserved

Periodicals

1.     Journal article, one author, journal paginated consecutively (i.e., each issue in the year’s volume is paginated from where the previous issue left off)
   

   Jennings, A. (1994). On being invisible in the mental health system. Journal of Mental Health Administration, 21, 374–387.

2.     Journal article, two authors, journal paginated by issue (i.e., each issue in the year’s volume begins on p. 1)
   

   Schreiber, R., & Nemetz, E. (1992). Pay equity for Ontario’s nurses. The Canadian Nurse, 88(9), 17–19. 

3.     Journal article, more than six authors
   

   Bernabei, R., Gambassi, G., Lapane, K., Landi, F., Gatsonis, C., Dunlop, R., et al. (1998). Management of pain in elderly cancer patients. Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 1917–1922.

4.     Magazine article
   

   Posner, M. I. (1993, October 29). Seeing the mind. Science, 262, 673–674. 

5.     Daily newspaper article, no author
   

   Health-care sector swallowing bitter bill. (1994, September 29). The Globe and Mail, pp. A1–A2.  

Books

1.     Reference to an entire book
   

   Baines, C., Evans, P., & Neysmith, S. (1991). Women’s caring: Feminist perspectives on social welfare. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: McClelland & Stewart.

2.     Book, second edition
   

   Waltz, C. F., Strickland, O. L., & Lenz, E. R. (1991). Measurement in nursing research (2nd ed.). Philadelphia: F. A. Davis. 

3.     Book, in press
   

   Everett, B. (in press). A fragile revolution: Consumers and survivors confront the power of the mental health system. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: Wilfrid Laurier University Press.  

4.     Book, corporate author
   

   Institute of Medicine, Committee on Nursing Home Regulation. (1986). Improving the quality of care in nursing homes. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. 

5.     Book, corporate author, author as publisher
   

   American Nurses Association. (1987). The care of clients with addictions. Kansas City, MO: Author. 

6.     Edited book
   

   Baumgart, A., & Larsen, J. (Eds.). (1992). Canadian nursing faces the future (2nd ed.). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Year Book.  

7.     Book, no author or editor
   

   ITP Nelson Canadian Dictionary. (1998). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: ITP Nelson.

Article or Chapter in an Edited Book

1.     Two editors 
   

   Parke, R. D., & Anderson, E. R. (1987). Fathers and their at-risk infants: Conceptual and empirical analyses. In P. W. Berman & F. A. Pedersen (Eds.), Men’s transitions to parenthood: Longitudinal studies of early family experience (pp. 197–215). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. 

2.     Three editors 
   

   Lush, M. T., Henry, S. B., Foote, K., & Jones, D. L. (1997). Developing a generic health status measure for use in a computer-based outcomes infrastructure. In U. Gerdin, M. Tallberg, & P. Wainwright (Eds.), Nursing informatics (pp. 229–234). Amsterdam: IOS Press.

Contributions to Meetings or Symposia

1.     Unpublished paper presented at a meeting
   

   Evers, G., & Isenberg, M. (1987, October). Reliability and validity of the appraisal of self-care agency (ASA) scale. Paper presented at the International Nursing Research Conference, Washington, DC.

2.     Contribution to a published proceedings 
   

   Given, B. A., Given, C. W., & Stommel, M. (1992). Depression and family caregiving: Measurement and definition. In B. Bauer (Ed.), Conceptual and methodological issues in family caregiving research: Proceedings of the Invitational Conference on Family Caregiving Research (pp. 20–30). Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto, Faculty of Nursing.

3.     Contribution to a proceedings published regularly 
   

   Zeally, A. K., & Aitken, R. C. B. (1969). Measurement of mood. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 62, 993–996. 

Unpublished manuscripts

1.     Unpublished manuscript not submitted for publication 
   

   Irvine Doran, D., Sidani, S., McGillis Hall, L., Watt-Watson, J., Mallette, C., Laschinger, H., et al. (2001). The state of science: A methodological review of the literature on nursing-sensitive outcomes. Unpublished report.

2.      Unpublished manuscript with a university cited
   

   Norman, G., Feightner, J., Tugwell, P., Muzzin, L., & Guyatt, G. (1983). The generalizability of measures of clinical problem solving. Unpublished manuscript, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. 

3.      Manuscript submitted for publication but not yet accepted 
   

   Author’s surname, first initial. (year). Title of work. Manuscript submitted for publication.
   (Note that name of journal or publisher is not given if manuscript has not yet been accepted.)

Electronic Media

When the fourth edition of the APA Publication Manual was published in 1994, its editors said that "a standard had not yet emerged for referencing on-line information" (APA, 1994, p. 218). How very true. APA has since superseded its initial guidelines about referencing electronic sources with numerous updates on its Web site. The section about electronic references in the new fifth edition of the Publication Manual (2001) has been substantially revised and increased to reflect the myriad of new electronic sources that have emerged since the last manual was published. Since many writers may be unfamiliar with how to reference these kinds of sources, I have included a few examples. Check their Web site at http://www.apastyle.org/elecsource.html periodically for further updates before the next edition of the Publication Manual is published.

1. Electronic online versions of articles from print journals
   

   Murphy, N., & Canales, M. (2001). A critical analysis of compliance. Nursing Inquiry, 8, 173-181. Retrieved September 4, 2002, from
   http://dx.doi.org/10.1046/j.1320-7881.2001.00106.x

   Soares-Weiser, K., Paul, M., Brezis, M., & Leibovici, L. (2002). Antibiotic treatment for spontaneous bacterial peritonitis. British Medical Journal, 324, 100-102. Retrieved September 4, 2002, from
   http://bmj.com/cgi/content/full/324/7329/100

2. Article from an Internet-only journal
   

   Russo, H. (2001, September 30). Window of opportunity for home care nurses: Telehealth technologies. Online Journal of Issues in Nursing, 6(3), Manuscript 4. Retrieved September 4, 2002, from
   http://www.nursingworld.org/ojin/topic16/tpc16_4.htm

Material in this guide was prepared by Barbara Bauer, Faculty of Nursing, University of Toronto, September 2003.

©2007, Barbara Bauer. All rights reserved

Every complete sentence contains two parts: a subject and a predicate (or verb). The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about. The verb tells something about the subject or expresses an action. 

Subjects and verbs are like married couples—they must agree with each other, or the relationship breaks down.  Specifically, a verb must agree in person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and number (singular or plural) with the noun or pronoun that is its subject. Most errors people make have to do with number.

1. Don’t be tricked by intervening phrases that contain nouns:

• A diet of acidic fruit juices and spicy foods have no effect on him.
• A diet of acidic fruit juices and spicy foods has no effect on him.
• Neither of the twins were willing to volunteer.
• Neither of the twins was willing to volunteer.

2. There are conventions around agreement with compound subjects:

A compound subject is made up of two (or more) nouns and/or pronouns. The parts of a compound subject are joined by a co-ordinating conjunction (and, or, nor, either … or, neither … nor, not … but, not only … but also, whether … or).

• When subjects are joined by or, nor, either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not . . . but, not only . . . but also, whether . . . or, the part of the subject nearest to the verb determines whether the verb is singular or plural:

• And creates a plural compound subject which takes a plural verb:

• There are insulin and vaccines in the refrigerator.

Again, don’t let yourself be fooled by intervening phrases:

• The height, weight and age of the infant was recorded.
• The height, weight and age of the infant were recorded.

Another important caution:  Phrases such as as well as, in addition to, together with, and along with are NOT conjunctions like and. They are prepositions. A singular subject followed by one of them still takes a singular verb:

• The visiting nurse as well as the agency were unaware of the schedule.
• The visiting nurse, as well as the agency, was unaware of the schedule.
• Both the visiting nurse and the agency were unaware of the schedule.

3. Collective nouns are a special case:

Some nouns, called collectives, (e.g., series, set, staff, pair, faculty, orchestra) refer either to several individuals or to a single unit. Collective nouns can be either singular or plural, depending on what you want to emphasize—the individual members of the group or the group as a whole:

• The staff were divided in their opinions. (every member has her or his own opinion)
• The staff was responsible for producing a report. (the staff functions as a single entity to produce the report)

4. Nouns of foreign origin do not have standard English endings for singular and plural.  Note that APA Style does not use conventional plurals for nouns ending in –x:

Noun-Pronoun Agreement

A pronoun (Latin pro = for + noun) is a word that refers to or stands in for an antecedent (i.e., a noun that appeared earlier).

Pronouns must agree with the noun they replace in number (singular, plural), person (1st, 2nd, 3rd) and gender (masculine, feminine, neuter). Most errors people make have to do with number.

• The students want to skip the exam.  They found the course useless.

1. When two or more antecedents are joined by and, we use a plural pronoun:

• The case manager and the social worker compared their notes.

unless this compound antecedent is preceded by each or every:

• Each unit and department reports to its case manager.

2. When two or more antecedents are mixed singular and plural, the pronoun should agree with the antecedent nearest it:

• Neither the students nor the nurse could hear herself.

This is correct but awkward, and most native English speakers would choose this option:

• Neither the nurse nor the students could hear themselves.

3. The pronoun none means no one or not one and has traditionally been treated as singular:

• None of the boys lost their temper.
• None of the boys lost his temper.

The same convention applies to any of the “one” pronouns: everyone, someone, anyone.

• Everyone has the same problem with that supervisor.

4.Pronouns must be used consistently:

• If one wants to pass the course, they have to write the exam.
• If they want to pass the course, they have to write the exam.
• If he or she wants to pass the course, he or she has to write the exam.

Tip:‘He or she’ becomes very awkward if it appears often in your paper. Avoid it this way:

• change to plural:  If they want to pass the course…
• use all masculine pronouns in one paragraph; switch to all feminine in the next
• reword without a pronoun:  To pass the course, students must write the exam.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

 Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

1. Focus on the critical points. You can amplify during the question period.
2. Content should be self-explanatory or should be explained.
3. Define specialized terminology that you believe will not be known to your audience.
4. Announce your graphics.
5. Slides should be visually interesting but not overwhelming:
   • Use bulleted points and parallel constructions [test 1...test 2]
   • Use an Arial font, at least 16 point, bolded
   • For tables/figures, make sure the reproduction is clear and dark
   • Don’t overcrowd but do fill the frame
   • Don’t overdo multiple colours & whizzing objects. Using two colours based on the same primary (red, yellow, blue) will disadvantage viewers who are colour blind.
6. Principle of emphasis: place the most important material first and come back to it at the end.
7. Use headings and repetition to make your organization clear.
8. Use numerical listings [Our first experiment…].
9. Use wording that establishes a hierarchy of importance [Our most important result…].

II How to Present

1. Here are the things I consider:

• what is the physical space like [size, shape, seating, lighting, acoustics]? Where am I standing within that space?
• microphone? what kind [podium, stem, clip-on, whole area wired]?
• equipment? how good is it?
• can I go in ahead of time to familiarize myself?

2. Here are the things I do to prepare:

• Rehearse, rehearse, rehearse. Time yourself.
• Get plenty of sleep.
• Avoid caffeine, but do hydrate with water.
• Practice safe redundancy—bring backups of your presentation.
• Bring physical aids [throat lozenges, tissues, water].
• Dress comfortably but professionally.

3.  Here is how I “perform”:

• Just before you go on, breathe deeply and slowly a few times. Open your throat and breathe from the diaphragm. This both oxygenates you and strengthens your voice.
• Begin S-L-O-W-L-Y.  You will naturally speed up as you speak, especially if you are nervous.
• Speak to the whole room. Make eye contact [or pretend to if the audience area is darkened].
• Project your voice to the back of the room or auditorium.
• Use your body—but don’t fidget with jewellery or clothing.

A Few More Tips on Oral Presentation

Keep the intro short. Grab the audience’s attention, tell them what you’re going to do, and then get right into things while they (and you) are at their freshest.  “Taking command” in this way also helps you psychologically—you quickly get past the inevitable nervousness you’ve been feeling.

For a long presentation, change your subject or mode of delivery every 20 minutes or so.  That is, make sure you have distinct and distinctive sections, so if people don’t get it all, they’ll get some useful blocks.

Always end at the end. That is, if you’re running out of time, skip to the end.

If someone asks a question, repeat it loudly and clearly—many in the audience will not have heard it.

Some wag once noted that the big advance of Powerpoint is that it lets the audience sleep in the dark.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

  Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

Take lecture notes with a view to ideas, not just facts.  The following suggestions will help you to

• develop your critical thinking skills,
• write better assignments, and
• write better exams.

Record:

Know the course outline and take notes on what is important according to the course framework. 

• Your aim is to map the main topics and examples discussed, not to transcribe everything.
• Use spacing and visual layout to show the groupings of ideas.
• Be sure to leave wide left and bottom margins on each page for further comments of your own.

You can also look for signals from the lecturer—verbal and non-verbal—to tell you what’s important.  For example, professors show emphasis through their body language and pauses in speaking.  Verbal cues include transitions (”I’d like to turn now to… “)  and breakdowns (”There are three main issues involved here…”).

Reduce:

Soon after the lecture, reread your notes for sense and accuracy.  Make sure everything is accurate and complete.  (If you have made your notes on computer, now is the time to print them out. Remember to leave wide left and bottom margins on each page.) Now pick out key words and write them in the left margin.

Recite:

Cover your notes and use the key words in the margins as cues to recall everything you can about the topic.

 STATE THE IDEAS AS MUCH AS YOU CAN IN YOUR OWN WORDS.

Reflect:

Write your reflections about the topic on the lower part of the page.  Also write down any questions your notes raise for you. Relate your notes to other points in previous lectures or readings and to your upcoming essay topics. Include your own thinking

• on the subject,
• on your experiences as a new member of your profession,
• on ways in which you agree or disagree with the professor’s ideas.

Review:

Before an exam, recite repeatedly, again covering notes and using marginal key words as cues. Think again about how the notes relate to the overall framework of the course:  Exam questions will always be framed in such a way as to get you to apply specific facts and ideas to the larger ideas of the course.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

  Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

Critically analyze: By “analyze” we mean to break something down into its parts, so that we can understand the whole. By being “critical” we DON’T mean finding fault. We mean judiciously assessing what we have analyzed, evaluating both its strengths and weaknesses for a specific purpose (i.e., making recommendations for improvement).

In analyzing issues, ask yourself these sets of questions:

1. The Issue:
What are there issues of?
Why do we care about this issue?
What does the literature say about this issue?

2. The Stakeholders:
Who is affected by the issues? (stakeholders)
How are the individual stakeholders affected? Who benefits most? least?
Who has the most power? least?
What bias/perspective does each stakeholder have? Is there a model or theory involved? (e.g., medical vs holistic)

3. The Solutions:
What solutions will benefit the various stakeholders?
How do the stakeholders justify their solutions?
Where do these solutions converge?
Where do these solutions conflict?
What is the “best” solution or solutions? (your recommendations)How would you justify these solutions? (theory or model)
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the “best” solutions? (evaluation)
How do we implement them? (recommended process)
Where do we go from here? (implications for future theory/research/practice)

Note: “Best” is a relative term. The best solution possible may not be very satisfactory to anyone, but still be the best possible under the circumstances.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

  Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

• how well you’ve handled the topic and followed the assignment
• the quality of your ideas
• the way you’ve organized your paper
• the quality of your writing style and grammar.

This means that grammar is only one of a number of factors determining your grade. Still, too many errors in grammar, punctuation, and style will lose you marks. This guide describes the ways to avoid the most common errors.

1. Faulty Agreement

a. Subjects and verbs must agree in number:

• Recent discoveries about the weather reveals that several cycles are involved.
• Recent discoveries about the weather reveal that several cycles are involved.
•  
• The media was biased in its reporting of the event.
• The media were biased in their reporting of the event.

b. Nouns and pronouns must agree in number:

• A student is free to express their opinion.
• A student is free to express his or her opinion.
• Students are free to express their opinions.

c. Pronouns must agree with each other:

• Once one has decided to take the course, you must keep certain policies in mind.
• Once you have decided to take the course, you must keep certain policies in mind.

2. Sentence Fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that is punctuated to look like a sentence (i.e., begins with a capital letter and ends with a period), but doesn’t fulfil the requirements of a complete sentence.

A complete sentence must contain both a subject and a predicate (verb). The subject is what (or whom) the sentence is about, while the verb tells something about the subject or expresses an action. In this example, there’s no subject. We don’t know who needs to know about the regulations:

• All of these regulations should be made aware.
• Athletes should be made aware of all these regulations.

Also, a complete sentence must contain at least one “independent clause,” that is, a group of words that stands by itself as a complete thought. A sentence may also have “subordinate clauses,” that is, a group of words that needs another to complete its meaning. In this example, the first sentence forms a complete thought. However, the second is a fragment because it depends on the verb “was poured”—it answers the question why the liquid was poured but doesn’t itself express any action:

• We poured the acid into a glass beaker. Being the only material impervious to these liquids.
• We poured the acid into a glass beaker, being the only material impervious to these liquids.
• Because it is the only material impervious to these liquids, we poured the acid into a glass beaker.

Note: Many people have been told that it is wrong to begin a sentence with “because.” However, it is perfectly correct when it is also introducing a subordinate clause.

3. Run-on [fused] Sentences

A sentence should express only one central idea:

• Home care has been expanding tremendously over the past decade partly due to technological advances that enable treatments to be a part of the home setting which at one time could only be performed within the hospital environment.
• Home care has expanded tremendously over the past decade. This increase is partly due to technological advances that now make more treatments possible in the home rather than the hospital environment.

4. Overuse of Passive Voice

Prefer active verbs to passive verbs. They are more direct and less wordy:

• It is through this paper that the proposed benefits of active exercise for Chronic Lower Back Pain (CLBP) will be examined.
• This paper will examine the proposed benefits of active exercise for Chronic Lower Back Pain (CLBP).

Also, be careful not to shift voice unnecessarily:

• I gave the patient 10cc orally, and 5 more were given intravenously.
• I gave the patient 10cc orally and 5cc intravenously.

5. Faulty Parallelism

Building parallel elements into a sentence adds clarity and elegance. Make sure that the different elements are grammatically the same (i.e., “parallel”):

• Eating huge meals, snacking between meals, and too little exercise can lead to obesity.
• Eating huge meals, snacking between meals, and exercising too little can lead to obesity.
•  
• Our coach is paid too much, obese, over forty, and a former champion wrestler.
• Our coach is a former champion wrestler, but now he is overpaid, overweight, and over forty.

6. Vague Pronouns

Make sure that pronouns such as “it” and “this” refer to something specific. “It is” and “There are” beginnings not only add meaningless words, they can also create confusion. In this example, what does “it” refer to? The ischaemic heart disease or the hypertension? It could mean either one:

• Hypertension is an established risk factor for the development of ischaemic heart disease. It is also present in many patients who develop stroke.
•  
• Hypertension is an established risk factor for the development of ischaemic heart disease. Hypertension is also present in many patients who develop stroke.
•  
• In the report they suggest that moderate exercise is better than no exercise at all.
• The authors of the report suggest that moderate exercise is better than no exercise at all.

7. Dangling Modifiers

Make sure that a modifying phrase or clause doesn’t “dangle” without the subject it is intended to modify. Here, the first example implies that the pain was doing the manipulating. The second implies that the hobbies go to school:

• By manipulating the lower back, the pain was greatly eased.
• By manipulating the lower back, the physiotherapist greatly eased the pain.
•  
• When not going to school, my hobbies range from athletics to automobiles.
• When I am not going to school, my hobbies range from athletics to automobiles.

8. Squinting or Misplaced Modifiers

A modifying phrase or clause is said to “squint” if it applies equally to two different parts of a sentence. Make sure the modifier clearly refers to the element you want it to. In the following example, is the council advising at regular intervals, or should the physicians be administering the drug at regular intervals?

• The council advises physicians at regular intervals to administer the drug.
• The council advises physicians to administer the drug at regular intervals.
• At regular intervals, the council advises physicians to administer the drug.

A “misplaced” modifier (usually an adverb) is positioned so that it changes the meaning of the sentence. This example raises an image of an elderly gentleman climbing through a window:

• I could see my grandfather coming through the window.
• Through the window, I could see my grandfather coming.

9. Mixed or Dead Metaphors

Recognize the literal meanings of your metaphors. The following example offers a ludicrous image of lightning grabbing someone and then becoming a wooden toy:

• Like a bolt from the blue the idea grabbed him,and it quickly took its place as one of his hobby-horses.
• The idea grabbed him as soon as he heard of it, and it quickly became an obsession.

Also, avoid clichés. Instead, give a precise description. The cliché in this example suggests that, at some point in their lives, Canadians may begin to age 48 hours for every 24 that pass:

• We studied pain management techniques for Canada’s rapidly aging population.
• We studied pain management techniques for the elderly in long-term care institutions in urban settings.

10. Faulty Word Choice [Faulty Diction]

Don’t use “fancy” words for their own sake; use a dictionary to check words whose meaning you are not sure of:

• Explaining the rationale for treatment can help distil patients’ fears.
• Explaining the rationale for treatment can help dispel patients’ fears.

11. Wordiness

Don’t spin empty words; instead, use the minimum number of words to express your idea. In the first example, the idea can be stated much more simply. The second example is so wordy and its idea so vague that it should simply be omitted.

• A definition that can be employed usefully, according to LaPlante et al. (1993), states that “assistive technology…”
• LaPlante et al. (1993) state that “assistive technology…”
•  
• It is evident that this term is associated with much ambiguity. Many concepts and ideas come to mind upon first hearing this phrase; however, a true grasp of its meaning is quite difficult to establish.

12. Comma Splices

A comma splice is the joining (“splicing”) of two independent clauses with only a comma. Here are the rules for avoiding them:

a. Use a period or semicolon to separate two independent clauses, or join them with a subordinating conjunction:

• We started to unpack our equipment, pretty soon we were ready for the test.
• We started to unpack our equipment; pretty soon we were ready for the test.
• We started to unpack our equipment, and pretty soon we were ready for the test.

b. Use a semicolon as well as a conjunctive adverb to join two independent clauses:

• Much of the literature advocates stretching preparatory to exercise, however, the mechanisms are not well understood.
• Much of the literature advocates stretching preparatory to exercise; however, the mechanisms are not well understood.

These are the most common conjunctive adverbs:

13. Misuse of Comma, Semicolon, and Colon

a. Use a comma after each item in a series of three or more:

• Many studies indicate favourable results in function, decreased pain and range of motion.
• Many studies indicate favourable results in function, decreased pain, and range of motion.

Note: The final comma is generally omitted when the series consists of single-word items, for example, “red, yellow and blue.”

b. Use a comma when you join independent clauses with one of the seven coordinating conjunctions (and, or, nor, but, so, yet, for):

• Power corrupts and absolute power corrupts absolutely.
• Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely.

c. Use a semicolon when you join independent clauses without a coordinating conjunction:

• Power corrupts, absolute power corrupts absolutely.
• Power corrupts; absolute power corrupts absolutely.

d. Do not use a comma to separate subject and verb:

• His enthusiasm for the project and his desire to be of help, led him to volunteer.
• His enthusiasm for the project and his desire to be of help led him to volunteer.

e. Use a colon to introduce a list or a long or formal quotation after a complete sentence. Otherwise make the quotation part of the grammar of your sentence:

• Strunk (1995) asserts that: “Too many programmes are already underfinanced” (p.87).
• Strunk (1995) asserts: “Too many programmes are already underfinanced” (p.87).
• Strunk (1995) asserts that “Too many programmes are already underfinanced” (p.87).

14. Incorrect Comparison

“Compared to” is often used incorrectly. It shouldn’t be used if the sentence contains a comparative term such “higher,” “greater,” “less,” or “lower.” For example,

• The blood serum levels in the control group were higher when compared to the treatment group.
• The blood serum levels in the control group were higher than in the treatment group.

Another error that creeps into comparison sentences is the comparison of items that are unlike each other:

• Our results are similar to our previous studies.
• Our results are similar to the results of our previous studies.

15. Double Constructions

This is a form of grammar overkill in which a part of speech is unnecessarily duplicated:

• Since the legislation has passed, therefore we will have more nurse practitioners.
• Since the legislation has passed, we will have more nurse practitioners.
• The legislation has passed; therefore, we will have more nurse practitioners.
•  
• The new procedure was popular with both doctors as well as nurses.
• The new procedure was popular with both doctors and nurses.
• The new procedure was popular with doctors as well as nurses.
•  
• The reason for the legislation was due to the long waiting lists.
• The reason for the legislation was the long waiting lists.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

1. Follow conference guidelines for dimensions and materials
2. Choose an overall layout that suggests an arrangement of communication areas. Some options are:
   • left-to-right flow of information in vertical columns
   • two fields in contrast
   • left-to-right flow in horizontal rows
   • a centered image surrounded by text, tables and figures
3. Leave sufficient white space
4. Label figures and tables clearly
5. Use large typeface. The following point sizes are recommended:
   96 point for the title
   24-36 point for subtitles
   Minimum 18 point for text.
6. Don’t use more than two fonts throughout.  Also, don’t mix serif and sans serif fonts:
   Times New Roman        Arial
7. Be creative, but don’t overdo the formatting to the extent that it obscures the information.
8. DO NOT WRITE ALL IN CAPITALS.  IT IS IRRITATING.

What to Include on a Poster

A poster is not a paper.  It’s difficult to read a lot of material when you are standing in front of it. Therefore, the poster must focus on the critical points. Do not overwhelm the viewer with data.

1. Title

• as brief as it can be
• to the point
• include authors and affiliations

2. Abstract

• as printed in the conference book of abstracts

3.  Introduction

• background information
• rationale for study based on the literature
• the question[s] asked

4.  Methods

• can be noted in the Results section unless they are unusual or the main point of the poster.

5.  Results

• the body of the poster
• in quantitative research, commonly presented as a series of tables and/or figures
• legends briefly summarize the result or the point of the figure
• the methods used should be noted briefly, noting critical elements
• a maximum of 2-3 sentences per figure
• in qualitative research, commonly presented as descriptions of themes

6.  Discussion

• a separate section is generally not needed unless research is qualitative

7.  Conclusion[s]/Recommendations

• a brief list answering the question[s] asked in the Introduction
• discussion if required, especially in qualitative research

8.  References

9.  Conflict of Interest

• if there is a real or perceived conflict, this should be displayed on the poster

10.  Acknowledgements

• supervisors
• sources of funding and/or materials

Some Style Variations

Variation 1:

This study seeks to determine whether Eph receptors play a role in dorsoventral patterning of motor neurons. I am examining whether loss of EphB2, B3 and A4, or combinations of these receptors alters the somatotopic pattern of limb innervation by lumbar motor neurons

Variation 2:

This study:

• seeks to determine whether Eph receptors play a role in dorsoventral patterning of motor neurons, and
• examines whether loss of EphB2, B3 and A4, or combinations of these receptors alters the somatotopic pattern of limb innervation by lumbar motor neurons

Variation 3:

What does this study determine?

• Do Eph receptors play a role in dorsoventral patterning of motor neurons?
• Does loss of EphB2, B3 and A4, or combinations of these receptors alter the somatotopic pattern of limb innervation by lumbar motor neurons?

Principles of Reduction in Figure Captions (How to Save Words)

Types of compressed language:

1. noun compounds: These are created by removing prepositional and verb elements to achieve compression.  The meaning of uncompressed language “unpacks” as the reader moves from left to right. However, noun compounds unpack from the right:

The utilization of DNA microarrays as a predictor of gene response in clinical trials

DNA microarray utilization as a clinical trial gene response predictor

2. gapping (deleting elements to achieve smoothness and conciseness):

In 1943, streptomycin was found to be effective against TB

1943: streptomycin found effective against TB

Presenting Your Poster

• Arrive early and always be near your poster

• Be ready to expand on the poster contents

• NETWORKING: Be ready to exchange contact information with interested viewers

• Be ready to respond to both praise and criticism graciously:

"This really is an outstanding poster; I’m really impressed. How do I quote you?"

"I know you don’t get much space for your poster, but my impression is that the data look pretty thin."

"Haven’t you read _______’s latest paper in _____?"

"I don’t see any references to the work of our research group."

(this list reproduced from Swales, J.M., & Feak, C.B., 2000, English in today’s research world: A writing guide. Ann Arbor, MI: University of Michigan Press, p.107)

As the day progresses, your audience constantly changes. Some viewers are only mildly interested; others (such as research supervisors and industry professionals) want to learn all about your research.  You should prepare several versions of your remarks, from 30 seconds to 5 minutes.

Whatever the length of your presentation, here are some tips:

• Don’t talk to the poster. Face the audience and turn to the poster only to point to some specific item you want them to focus on. Then turn back to them. 
• Use verbal cues to direct their focus (e.g., “If you look at the results of our second experiment [point at figure], you’ll notice that…”). 
• Look around at your audience and make eye contact. Don’t stare ahead of you, at the floor, or at your poster.
• Speak clearly and slowly – the acoustics in poster rooms are rarely favourable.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

To show addition:
a second point
again
and
also
another
as well
besides
first, second…
for one thing…for
       another
further
furthermore
in addition
moreover
next
or/nor
too

To compare:
also
by comparison
equally
in the same manner/in
       the same way
likewise
similarly
than

To contrast:
although
but
conversely
however
in contrast/by contrast
nevertheless
nonetheless
on the contrary
on the other hand
rather
still
though
unlike
whereas
yet

To give examples:
for example
for instance
in fact
in particular
namely
particularly
specifically
such as
that is
to illustrate/as an
       illustration

To emphasize a point:
above all
certainly
chiefly
especially
indeed
in fact
in particular
more/most importantly
primarily
unquestionably

To restate a point:
again
in brief
in effect
in other words
in short
in simpler terms
that is
to put it another way
to repeat

To summarize or conclude:
in conclusion
in other words
in short
in summary
that is
therefore
to sum up

To indicate logical relationship:
as a result
consequently
for this reason
if…then
since
so
therefore
thus

To introduce a qualification or concession:
admittedly
after all
all the same
despite
doubtless
even if/even though
frequently
generally
granted
in a sense
in general
in spite of
it is true that
naturally
no doubt
notwithstanding
occasionally
of course
otherwise
provided
surely
to be sure
unfortunately
usually

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

• Adidas Canada made a very big profit last year.
• Adidas Canada’s profit rose forty percent in fiscal 2006.

Avoid all-purpose adjectives like unique, significant, important, meaningful. All are meaningless unless the reader is told why and to whom something is unique, significant, important, or meaningful. Also, remember that unique and perfect are absolutes; there are no degrees of uniqueness or perfection. Something is either unique/perfect or it is not.

2. Don’t be redundant.

• As well as being costly and financially extravagant, the project is reckless and foolhardy.
• The project is both costly and foolhardy.

3. Don’t be wordy. Never use six words when one will do.

• A large number of athletes, both recreational and elite, practice some type of a warm-up activity prior to exercising. The goal of warming-up is to prepare the athlete physically and mentally for exercise.
• Many athletes, both recreational and elite, perform warm-up activities to prepare physically and mentally for exercise.

4. Avoid ‘it is’ and ‘there is’ beginnings.

• It is certain that needs will increase.
• Needs will certainly increase.

5. Be direct: where possible choose active over passive verbs; personal subjects over objects.

• The materialistic implications of Darwin’s theory led to a long delay before it was published.
• Darwin delayed publication of his theory for a long time because of its materialistic implications.

6. Avoid clichés.

• Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) exists in today’s modern society as the most common entrapment neuropathy diagnosed and treated.
• Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is currently the most common entrapment neuropathy diagnosed and treated.

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

Use present tense:
1.  To describe something that is happening now:

• Appendix A summarizes the results of the survey.

2.  To describe published research, articles or books whose conclusions you believe are currently valid and relevant. It doesn’t matter whether the publication is recent or centuries old:

• Malone (2003) discusses nursing care in the context of nested proximities.
• In her Notes on Nursing (1860), Florence Nightingale includes practices for cleanliness and observation of the sick.

3.  To indicate a general truth or fact, a general law, or a conclusion supported by research results.  In other words, something that is believed to be always true:

• The provincial government regulates the delivery of health care. [fact]
• For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. [law]
• Our results demonstrate that cimetidine can improve mean fat absorption in adolescents with cystic fibrosis. [conclusion]

4.  To describe an apparatus (because it always works the same way):

• This temperature gauge gives an accurate reading in all weather conditions.

5.  To state research objectives: [note: past tense is also commonly used]

• The purpose of this study is to examine imagery use by elite athletes.

B. Simple Past Tense

Use simple past tense:

1.  To describe something that began and ended in the past, e.g., the Methods or Results sections of a research report:

• We administered four doses daily to 27 participants for 14 days.
• The transgenic plants showed up to eight-fold PAL activity compared to control.

2.  To describe previous work on which the current work is based:

• Smith et al.’s (2005) study collected data on the drug’s effect in a pediatric population similar to ours.

3.  To describe a fact, law, or finding that is no longer considered valid and relevant:

• Nineteenth-century physicians held that women got migraines because they were “the weaker sex,” but current research shows that the causes of migraine are unrelated to gender.

Note the shift here from past tense (discredited belief) to present (current belief).

4.  To state research objectives: [note: present tense is also commonly used]

• The purpose of this study was to examine imagery use by elite athletes.

C. Perfect Tense

This tense is formed with the auxiliary [“helping”] verb have plus the main verb:

1.  Use a present perfect tense to describe something that began in the past and continues to the present:

• Hassanpour has studied the effects of radiation treatment since 1982 [and still does].
• Researchers have demonstrated a close link between smoking and morbidity rates.

2.  Use a past perfect tense to describe an action completed in the past before a specific past time:

• Nightingale had begun her reforms of nursing practice prior to the Crimean War.

D. Future Tense

Use future tense in outlines, proposals, and descriptions of future work:

• The proposed study will examine the effects of a new dosing regimen.  Twenty-seven participants will receive four doses daily for 14 days.

E. Progressive Tense

Use a progressive tense for an action or condition that began at some past time and is continuing now. It is formed from the auxiliary verb be plus a present participle. A progressive form emphasizes the continuing nature of the action:

• I am collecting data from three sites this month.

In places where conciseness is important (such as an abstract), it is often possible to use a simple verb form instead:

• With this new method, we are attempting to demonstrate….
• With this new method, we attempt to demonstrate….

F. Active and Passive Voice

Active (direct) voice: The normal pattern of English sentences is subject—verb—object, which we call active voice:

• Southern analysis indicated a single site of insertion.

Passive (indirect) voice reverses the order (object—verb—subject). Passive voice is constructed by using a form of the verb be followed by a past participle (-ed).  The phrase “by [the subject]” is included or implied:

• A single site of insertion was indicated by Southern analysis.
• Southern analysis was performed [by us] and a single site of insertion was indicated [by the analysis].

Use passive voice:

1.  to de-emphasize the subject in favour of what has been done:

• Red or blue outfits were randomly assigned to competitors in four elite sports.

2.  to discuss background that exists as part of the body of knowledge of the discipline, independent of the current author:

• Colour is thought to influence human mood, emotions and expressed aggression.

As a general principle, use active voice in preference to passive.  It is both more direct and more concise:

• Chen performed the experiment in 2006.
• The experiment was performed by Chen in 2006.

G. Modal Verbs

Modal verbs are a type of auxiliary or “helping” verb.Auxiliary verbs help complete the form and meaning of main verbs. The principal modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must, should, and would. They combine with main verbs to express meanings such as ability, possibility, permission, obligation, and necessity:

• Cimetidine can improve mean fat absorption in adolescents with cystic fibrosis. [ability, present tense]
• At first the phlebotomist could not locate the vein. [ability, past tense]
• We think we may receive more funding for our study. [possibility, present tense]
• We thought we might receive more funding for our study. [possibility, past tense]
• Scientists may perform experiments on human subjects only with ethics approval. [permission. Note: "can" has become almost interchangeable with "may" to indicate permission, especially in North America.]
• We must replicate their experiment prior to testing our own method. [necessity]
• We should seek ethics approval before advertising for participants. [obligation]
• Studying these organisms would provide insight into their protective mechanisms. [possibility]

H. Mood

Mood is the form of a verb that shows whether the act or state expressed is thought of as a fact, a command, or a possibility or wish:

1.  Indicative mood (stating a fact): Most English sentences are in indicative mood.

• The depletion of ATP results in a loss of ionic gradients.

2.  Imperative mood (giving a command): Imperative mood is widely used in scientific and technical writing for instructions.

• Decrease ion permeability by reducing the conductance of individual ion channels.

3.  Subjunctive mood (expressing a possibility or wish):  The subjunctive mood has almost disappeared from North American English. However, . . .

a.  Subjunctive mood is used in scientific writing to make recommendations. To form the subjunctive mood in these examples, the third-person singular loses its “s”:

• Indicative: Currently the case manager acts as a liaison with the new agency.
• Subjunctive: The independent report recommends that the social worker act as a liaison with the new agency.  [expresses the wish of the report’s authors, and the possibility that certain actions may result]

To form the subjunctive in these next examples, the indicative forms of the verb be (am, are, is) change to be:

• Indicative:  Currently, supplemental pancreatic enzymes are administered to adolescents with cystic fibrosis to improve mean fat absorption.
• Subjunctive: This study recommends that cimetidine be administered to adolescents with cystic fibrosis to improve mean fat absorption.

b.  Subjunctive mood is used in scientific writing to express demands and requirements:

• Current policy requires that nurses be baccalaureate-prepared.

I. How to Use Verbs Strategically

Remember these key points:

• All writing is persuasive;
• Writers use language strategically to persuade their readers;
• Verbs play an important role in the strategic moves made by writers.

We accomplish our persuasive purpose through

1. strategic choice of verbs;
2. strategic shifts in verb tense, voice and mood.

Case A:  The final sentence of a graduate student application for renewal of funding:

• To date, I have mastered the fundamental techniques in basic immunology and basic molecular biology that are required to answer my research questions, and look forward to exciting results in the near future.

1.  The verbs are strategically chosen to convey the writer’s command of the subject (master), the necessity of the work to date (require), and a sense of forward movement (look forward). They are powerful word choices that engender an air of excitement.  The verbs persuade the funding committee to think positively of the writer’s research.

2.  The present perfect tense (have mastered) emphasizes the writer’s continuous hard work until now. The shift to present tense (are required, look forward) strengthens the message that the writer’s work fills both present and future needs.

Case B:  Two sentences from the introduction to a literature review:

• Early studies in the area all failed to distinguish between cell depolarization and loss of ionic gradients, and thus their conclusions are suspect. Later studies have corrected this flaw and will be the focus of the review that follows.

1.  The verbs are strategically chosen to convey the fatal flaws of early studies (failed), the writer’s rejection of their findings (are suspect), the strength of more recent studies (have corrected), and the intention of the writer to focus on them (will be…follows).

2.  The simple past tense (failed) followed by the present (are) emphasizes that the early findings are today not valid. The shift to present perfect (have corrected) emphasizes the length of time researchers have studied the problem, signaling that it is worthy of study. The final shift, to future (will be) and present (follows), signals the arrival of the body of the review. 

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

  Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

Summary:

Give a concise and accurate summary of the study purpose, design, findings, and conclusions:

1. Type of study (e.g., randomized clinical trial, quasi-experimental)
2. Purpose of study (e.g., to test the hypothesis that….)
3. Materials and methods:
   • subject population (numbers, sex, ages, demographics, characteristics, etc.)
   • variables/measures/indicators, and the methods of observation
   • numbers of trials, length of time intervals, etc.
   • statistical analyses (or lack thereof) in the study design
4. Results:
   • actual results (e.g., means and variance, distribution)
   • statistics derived from the data; significance (or lack thereof) of statistics
5. Discussion/Conclusions:
   • how did the authors interpret the results or their significance and answer their research question?

Critique:

Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the study:

1. Introduction:  clarity and rationale of background and stated purpose
2. Methods:
   • are they valid for studying this problem? 
   • could the study be duplicated from the information given? 
   • are there flaws in the methods (e.g., inadequate sample selection, inappropriate experimental design?)
3. Results:  accuracy and reliability of observations
   • are the data presented in tables and illustrations organized for ready comparison and interpretation?
   • are there discrepancies between text and tables? 
   • do the results reveal what the researcher[s] intended?
4. Discussion: 
   • does the interpretation arise logically from the data, or is it too far-fetched? 
   • is the interpretation at odds or in line with other researchers’ thinking? 
   • have all key studies been considered? 
   • have the authors discussed the strengths and limitations of their own research? 
   • do they suggest further work?

Be sure to consider the following, too:

1. Bias: 
   • is the study biased in any way?
2. Disclosure
   • do the authors share their results?
3. Logical reasoning: validity of design and conclusions
   • internal (did they answer the research question?) AND
   • external (is the study generalizable to another population or a currently held theory?)
4. Clarity of presentation
   • does the title precisely state the subject of the paper?
   • does the abstract accurately summarize the article?
   • is all material organized under the appropriate headings? 
   • are sections subdivided logically? 
   • reflect on the writer’s thinking and writing style: is it clear, concise, and precise

Sources

Kuyper, B.J. (April, 1991), “Bringing up scientists in the art of critiquing research,” BioScience, 4 (4): 248-250.

Richards, D. PHE308 (Sports Medicine), unpublished instructional material. Faculty of Physical Education and Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada.

Taylor, D. Unpublished instructional material. Health Sciences Writing Centre, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto

Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

A “review of the literature” is a classification and evaluation of what accredited scholars and researchers have written on a topic. Occasionally you will be asked to write one as a separate assignment, but often it is part of the introduction to an essay, research report, or thesis. In writing the literature review, your purpose is to convey to your reader what knowledge and ideas have been established on a topic, and what their strengths and weaknesses are. As a piece of writing, the literature review must be defined by a guiding concept (e.g., your research objective, the problem or issue you are exploring, or your thesis). It is not just a descriptive list of the material available, or a set of summaries.

A literature review consists of an overview, a summary, and an evaluation (“critique”) of the current state of knowledge about a specific area of research. It may also include a discussion of methodological issues and suggestions for future research.

Besides enlarging your knowledge about the topic, writing a literature review lets you gain and demonstrate skills in two areas:

1. information seeking: the ability to scan the literature efficiently, using manual and computerized methods, to identify a set of useful articles, books and documents;
2. critical appraisal: the ability to apply principles of analysis to identify unbiased and valid studies.

A literature review must do these things:

1. be organized around and related directly to the thesis or research question you are developing;
2. synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known;
3. identify areas of controversy in the literature;
4. formulate questions that need further research.

Why are Literature Reviews Important?

To become an expert in any field of endeavour, you must know your field comprehensively. Critical reviews of state-of-the-art literature permit the professional to make informed decisions, to act in an expert manner, and to set policy in his or her field of expertise.

Researchers conduct reviews of the literature to justify proposed studies, to uncover patterns of findings in the field, to enter into scientific debate, and to discover gaps in knowledge that lead to future research questions. Research reviews are often the first step toward making discoveries and social interventions in our society.

Questions to Ask Yourself About
Your Review of Literature

1. Do I have a specific thesis, problem, or research question which my literature review helps to define?
2. What type of literature review am I conducting? Am I looking at issues of theory? methodology? policy? quantitative research (e.g., studies of neural pathways)? qualitative research (e.g., studies of loneliness among migrant workers)?
3. What is the scope of my literature review? What types of publications am I using (e.g., journals, books, government documents, popular media)? What disciplinary databases am I searching? (e.g., nursing, psychology, sociology, medicine)?
4. How good are my information-seeking skills? Has my search been wide enough to ensure I’ve found all the relevant material? Has it been narrow enough to exclude irrelevant material? Is the number of sources I’ve used appropriate for the length of my paper?
5. Is there a specific relationship between the literature I’ve chosen to review and the problem I’ve formulated?
6. Have I critically analyzed the literature I use? Do I just list and summarize authors and articles, or do I assess them? Do I discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the material I cite?
7. Have I cited and discussed studies contrary to my perspective?
8. Will the reader find my literature review relevant, appropriate, and useful?

Questions to Ask Yourself About
Each Book or Article You’re Reviewing

1. Has the author formulated a problem/issue?
2. Is the problem/issue ambiguous or clearly articulated? Is its significance (scope, severity, relevance) discussed?
3. What are the strengths and limitations of the way the author has formulated the problem or issue?
4. Could the problem have been approached more effectively from another perspective?
5. What is the author’s research orientation (e.g., interpretive, critical science, combination)?
6. What is the author’s theoretical framework (e.g., psychoanalytic, developmental, feminist)?
7. What is the relationship between the theoretical and research perspectives?
8. Has the author evaluated the literature relevant to the problem/issue? Does the author include literature taking positions s/he does not agree with?
9. In a research study, how good are the three basic components of the study design (i.e., population, intervention, outcome)? How accurate and valid are the measurements? Is the analysis of the data accurate and relevant to the research question? Are the conclusions validly based upon the data and analysis?
10. In popular literature, does the author use appeals to emotion, one-sided examples, rhetorically-charged language and tone? Is the author objective, or is s/he merely “proving” what s/he already believes?
11. How does the author structure his or her argument? Can you “deconstruct” the flow of the argument to analyze if/where it breaks down?
12. Is this a book or article that contributes to our understanding of the problem under study, and in what ways is it useful for theory or practice? What are its strengths and limitations?
13. How does this book or article fit into the thesis or question I am developing?

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

You don’t have to assign yourself grades, although they’re included if you wish to. If you do use them, use ‘C’ as your starting point (i.e., have the expectation that you’ve written an adequate paper), and move up or down from there.

1. Topic:

• is there a clear definition of what the central topic, problem or issue is? can you point to a place where it is described clearly and precisely?A B C D E
• is the topic sufficiently narrowed or broadened such that it can be dealt with fully in the assigned length?A B C D E
• is there a clear rationale for analysing or discussing this topic?  Have you established why your topic is important, and to whom?A B C D E
• is there a clear thesis or perspective on the topic?—not just “what” but “what about it?” (e.g., “incidences of bullying have increased” vs. “increasing incidences of bullying reflect the failure of social policies”)?A B C D E
• does the paper stick to the topic, or does it sometimes wander to other topics?A B C D E
• Overall:  A B C D E

2. Ideas:

• is the content appropriate to the topic or question posed?  is the level of detail appropriate for the focus of the paper (i.e., broad or narrow)?A B C D E
• is there a good balance between ideas and evidence, or evidence and interpretation?A B C D E
• have you understood and applied the literature and the theories, or have you merely read and regurgitated them? have you explained the ideas and findings of others in your own words? have you described their strengths and weaknesses?A B C D E
• have you shown which approaches have been taken to your topic or problem? do you show awareness of problematic or controversial elements; awareness of potential objections or alternate approaches?A B C D E
• are you too general, too descriptive, too full of generalizations that can’t be supported? are your ideas clichéd, or repetitious?A B C D E
• does the argument (ideas + evidence) made in the body connect to the topic, and does it lead logically and inevitably to your conclusion(s)?A B C D E
• Overall:  A B C D E

3. Organization and Structure:

• are there clearly defined sections in the paper that correspond to the particular requirements of the assignment? if headings are used, are they used logically?A B C D E
• does the introduction define the issue, state a rationale, and indicate a focus for your discussion/analysis?A B C D E
• does each paragraph in the body address a distinct idea, or contribute to the development of the distinct idea of its section? is there unnecessary repetition?A B C D E
• does the conclusion merely restate the topic or thesis, or does it offer a genuine conclusion?A B C D E
• on all levels—the paper as a whole, each section, each paragraph, and each sentence—does the paper follow the three principles of effective organization?
  • unity (deals with one idea)
  • coherence (moves smoothly and logically)
  • emphasis (important points and words are strategically placed

  A B C D E

• if there is an abstract, is it accurate, concise, self-contained, and readable?A B C D E
• Overall:  A B C D E

4. Expression

• is the writing style concise, direct, and interesting?A B C D E
• is there a good variety of sentence lengths and types? A B C D E
• is the tone appropriate?
  • scientific: neutral, objective
  • reflective: personal, subjective

  A B C D E

• are technical and scientific terms used correctly and consistently?A B C D E
• are the non-technical word choices appropriate?—good, varied vocabulary; precision in word choice; clear and simple over long and LatinateA B C D E
• are there errors in “mechanics”: grammar, punctuation, usage, spelling?A B C D E
• are the citation, referencing and formatting complete and accurate?A B C D E
• Overall:  A B C D E

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved

An abstract is a brief summary which condenses in itself the argument and all the essential information of a paper.

An abstract allows the reader to survey the contents of a document quickly and decide whether to continue reading.  It needs to be dense with information but also readable, well-organized, brief, and self-contained.

Abstracts are generally 100-250 words, though a thesis or conference abstract may be up to 400 words. There are no rules for the exact format of an abstract. This Guide provides samples, below, of the commonly used formats:  paragraph style, headings style, and mixed style.

A conference paper may have an audience of a few dozen; the audience for a journal paper may be hundreds to thousands.  An abstract, though, has a life of its own in electronic databases around the world. Like a title, it is used by abstracting and information services to index and retrieve articles. Thus, for every person who hears or reads a paper, hundreds will read the abstract.

An abstract competes for attention in a global ocean of literature—it’s worth spending some quality time on writing it.

What Goes Into an Abstract?

For a research paper, an abstract typically answers these questions:

For a methods paper, an abstract typically answers these questions:

Tips on Writing an Abstract

1. Write the abstract last
2. Follow any guidelines you’ve been given
3. Be accurate
4. Be self-contained
5. Be clear, concise and specific
6. Use signals
7. Emphasize points in proportion to the emphasis they receive in the paper
8. Select key indexing terms

Tip No.1: Write the abstract last

An abstract should be written as the final stage of an otherwise complete paper.  Otherwise it will tend to be vague and/or incomplete. You’ll hesitate to be too specific, because you don’t know yet what your conclusions will be. You’ll start writing uninformative sentences like these:

• Preliminary results are presented.
• Policy implications are discussed.

Tip No.2: Follow any guidelines you’ve been given

There are no rules for the exact format of an abstract. However, if the abstract is being submitted to a conference, journal, grant agency, or is part of a thesis or dissertation, the organization or department may issue guidelines for abstracts.

If so, be sure to follow them precisely. Do not try to “improve” on their format, or think it doesn’t matter if you make minor changes (or even major ones!).  Differences from an expected format interrupt the reader’s ability to concentrate on the text.  When your reader has dozens (or hundreds) of abstracts to choose from, this sort of negative attention does not help your case for acceptance.

Tip No.3: Be accurate

Make sure the abstract does the following:

• it uses the same language as the paper, especially key words and concepts
• it includes only information that actually appears in the paper
• it correctly reflects the purpose and content of your paper
• for a research report, it states if the study extends or replicates previous research
• it reports what it is in the body of the paper but doesn’t comment on it or make claims (e.g., This important new theory…; Our study is essential in characterizing the function of this receptor…).

Tip No.4: Be self-contained

You can’t ask your reader to go elsewhere for an understanding of what you say in your abstract. Therefore,

• define all acronyms and abbreviations (except standard units of measurement)
• spell out names of tests and drugs (use generic names for drugs)
• define unique terms
• do not include references. An exception is made for sources whose theory, method or measure is being used. For example,

• All athletes completed the Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ; Hall, 1983).

Tip No.5: Be clear, concise and specific

• make each sentence as informative as possible, especially the lead sentence
• include in the abstract only the most important concepts, findings, or implications
• the question and what was done can often be written in one sentence:

To examine the effect of an imagery intervention on imagery use of elite figure skaters, we required athletes (n=30) to listen to a guided imagery session of a skating element during warm up for six consecutive practices.

• avoid sentences that contain no real information (Policy implications are discussed).
• short sentences are preferable but not required. Avoid clusters of nouns and adjectives—they make your sentence shorter but often compromise clarity:

• Our study found significant bipolar disorder interepisodic phase functional morbidity.
• Our study found significant functional morbidity in the interepisodic phase of bipolar disorder.

• if you give a P value, also give data (e.g., mean ± SD) and the sample size (n).
• use active voice and personal pronouns for study objectives

• First, new clinical criteria were attempted to be defined.
• We first sought to define new clinical criteria.

• conserve characters:
• use digits for numbers unless the number begins a sentence
• abbreviate whenever possible (e.g., vs. for versus)
• give percent change rather than exact data when possible
• don’t waste space by repeating the title
• don’t waste space with promises—an abstract should deliver:

• This study will examine pain control at Hospital X.
• Of the caregivers at Hospital X, 53% actively encouraged epidurals for patients who were “hostile or extremely resistant” to artificial pain control.

Tip No.6: Emphasize points in proportion to the emphasis they receive in the paper

• If your paper is a proposal, with fairly equal sections devoted to background, literature review, and your proposed method, those should be the proportions in the abstract.
• If you are reporting on research, the amount of space devoted to results should reflect their importance and level of complexity.

Tip No.7: Use signals

 b) Choose verbs that signal the parts of the abstract:

• use present tense for the topic/problem/question
• use past tense to describe your method, results and analysis
• use a cautious present tense for implications (may mediate, can improve) and recommendations (should be administered)
• use simple future tense in a proposal (I will measure…; This exploratory study will investigate…)

c) Use transitional words and phrases that signal logical relationships:

   
Tip No.8: Select key indexing terms

• Choose key words and phrases that will make your paper readily and accurately searchable in databases
• Select terms you would use to find your own paper
• Select current terms, such as medical subject headings (MeSH), that name important topics in your paper
• If necessary, include an indexing term even if the term does not appear in the paper.

Sources

Samples of Abstracts, with Notes

Case A:  What not to do

The purpose of this paper was to ^Acritique and contrast ^Bfour research articles which explored adaptive functioning in the interepisodic phase of bipolar disorder. ^CHaving discussed why this is an important topic in Adult Occupational Therapy and having given ^D a brief overview of each article, ^Ethe writer critiqued each study with respect to the following headings: ^F theoretical background, research design, sampling, measurement, data analysis, conclusions, and contribution to OT knowledge base. ^G In conclusion, it was found that despite methodological limitations, the studies’ findings generally supported previous research which suggests that people with bipolar disorder experience significant interepisodic functional morbidity. ^H Implications for Occupational Therapy practice were then briefly discussed.

Notes:

The most serious problem with this abstract is that it lists what is covered in the paper, but does not describe why the topic (adaptive functioning and bipolar disorder) is important, or what this paper found when it reviewed four studies on the topic.

The abstract is an outline, with each item in the outline expanded into a sentence.  It tells the reader what the paper is about, but not what it contributes. It is a meta-description – that is, a description of a description, not the description itself.

Here are some other lessons to learn from this inadequate abstract:

^A  There’s no need to say “critique and contrast.” By definition, when we critique studies, we compare and contrast them.
^B  Researchers report their studies in the form of journal articles, but it is the research studies that we critique, not the articles. The distinction is subtle but important.
^C  Don’t promise to tell us why the topic is important, just tell us. Also, it’s difficult to imagine a more awkward way to construct this sentence, with its clumsy verbs (having discussed, having given).
^D  No need to tell us that the studies will be summarized—this is always a part of the critique process. Better to use this space to tell us why the topic is important.
^E  Say “I” or “we,” not “the writer.”
^F  This list simply replicates the headings that were specified in the course assignment—it outlines the paper without describing it. It would be better to choose the most significant of the “methodological limitations” mentioned in the next sentence and identify them for the reader.
^G  This is the best sentence in the abstract, because it describes the conclusion reached, instead of providing a meta-description such as “Conclusions are discussed.”
^H  It would be better to specify one or two major implications. Also, use present tense (are, not “were”) to describe conclusions, implications, or recommendations.

Case B: What not to do

Silenced Partners: Epistemological and Rhetorical Barriers to Interdisciplinary Health Care Practice.

Recent educational initiatives to encourage interdisciplinary practice in the health care system fail to address hierarchical and curricular barriers that have historically divided the disciplines, and by failing to address them serve ultimately to reinforce them. Drawing on the work of Foucault and Liaschenko, this paper argues that the discourse of scientific medicine gives visible representation and voice overwhelmingly to knowledge that can be quantified, rendering other, qualitative knowledges invisible and silenced, and denying them the power that would make them equal players on the health care field. A key feature of this paper is a comparative analysis of the rhetorical moves in two studies of quality-of-life, one quantitative and one qualitative methodology.

Notes:

The author of this Guide is embarrassed to confess that she once submitted this abstract as a proposal for a conference paper. Surprisingly, the conference committee accepted it. The problem here is that the sentences are so long, the abstract becomes unreadable. There are only three sentences and they are crammed with ideas. The middle sentence is a whopping 52 words. Even the “short” sentences are 36 and 25 words. Notice how much easier to follow this revised version is, because each idea gets its own sentence. The new word counts are given in brackets:

Recent educational initiatives to encourage interdisciplinary practice in the health care system fail to address hierarchical and curricular barriers that have historically divided the disciplines.[25] The failure to address interdisciplinary barriers serves ultimately to reinforce them.[11] Drawing on the work of Foucault and Liaschenko, this paper argues that the discourse of scientific medicine gives visible representation and voice overwhelmingly to knowledge that can be quantified.[29] Medical discourse renders other, qualitative knowledges invisible and silenced.[9] Further, it denies them the power that would make them equal players on the health care field.[17] A key feature of this paper is a comparative analysis of the rhetorical moves in two studies of quality-of-life, one quantitative and one qualitative methodology.[25]

Case D:  Paragraph style, from a Social Work thesis

The Experience of Being the Adopted Child/Adolescent of Same-Sex Parents
^ALesbians and gay men, whether seeking child custody or adoption, continue to be marginalized by the general public and legal system. ^BAdvised by their lawyer, the majority of same-sex couples seeking to become adoptive parents do not openly acknowledge their sexual orientation for fear of rejection of their application. ^CPresently, however, there is a growing trend for lesbians and gay men to openly state their sexual orientation in child custody and adoption procedures. ^DA large body of research demonstrates that same-sex couples are as affective parents as are straight couples. ^ENonetheless, the judicial system still disapproves of same-sex couples in relation to adoption and custody of children. ^FIn order to add to the evidence supporting same-sex couples as adoptive parents, ^Gthis exploratory study ^Hwill conduct semi-structured interviews  ^Ito reveal how adopted children/adolescents feel about being raised by lesbian and gay men couples.

Notes:
^A  Statement of the social problem
^b  Consequence of the problem
^C  Recent social trend
^D  Support from the literature for social change
^E Aspect of the problem the study focuses on
^F  Purpose of the study
^G Design of the study
^H Method of the study
^I Anticipated results of the study

Case E: Mixed style, abstract of a review article

McDonagh MS. Whiting PF. Wilson PM. Sutton AJ. Chestnutt I.Cooper J. Misso K. Bradley M. Treasure E. Kleijnen J.  Systematic review of water fluoridation.
Source: BMJ. Vol 321(7265) (pp 855-859), 2000.

Objective: To review the safety and efficacy of fluoridation of drinking water. Design: Search of 25 electronic databases and world wide web. Relevant journals hand searched; further information requested from authors. Inclusion criteria were a predefined hierarchy of evidence and objectives. Study validity was assessed with checklists. Two reviewers independently screened sources, extracted data, and assessed validity. Main outcome measures: Decayed, missing, and filled primary/ permanent teeth. Proportion of children without caries. Measure of effect was the difference in change in prevalence of caries from baseline to final examination in fluoridated compared with control areas. For potential adverse effects, all outcomes reported were used. Results: 214 studies were included. The quality of studies  was low to moderate. Water fluoridation was associated with an increased proportion of children without caries and a reduction in the number of teeth affected by caries. The range (median) of mean differences in the proportion of children without caries was -5.0% to 64% (14.6%). The range (median) of mean change in decayed, missing, and filled primary/permanent teeth was 0.5 to 4.4 (2.25) teeth. A dose-dependent increase in dental fluorosis was found. At a fluoride level of 1 ppm an estimated 12.5% (95% confidence interval 7.0% to 21.5%) of exposed people would have fluorosis that they would find aesthetically concerning. Conclusions: The evidence of a beneficial reduction in caries should be considered together with the increased prevalence of dental fluorosis. There was no clear evidence of other potential adverse effects.

Case F: Headings style, from a research report

Novel Small Molecule Chondroitin 4-Sulphate Inhibitors as a Treatment for Maternal Malaria
Aleksandar D. Kostic, Walter Szarek and Ian Crandall, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Toronto, Toronto, and Department of Chemistry, Queen’s University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada.

Background: ^AIn regions of endemic malaria, protective clinical immunity to Plasmodium falciparum is acquired in childhood, limiting the occurrence of severe clinical malaria in adults. ^BAn exception is primigavid and secundigravid women who are susceptible to malaria resulting from the adherence of P.falciparum-parasitized erythrocytes (PEs)^C to chondroitin 4-sulphate (C4S) present on placental syncytiotrophoblasts.  ^DWe performed an in vitro evaluation of a series of structurally related synthetic small molecules ^Eto determine if they could interact with C4S.  ^FSuch molecules may have therapeutic use if they could compete with the ligand found in the P.falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1) antigen of PEs and thereby prevent the adhesion of parasitized erythrocytes to the C4S receptor.
Methods: Competition assays using a two-fold dilution series of the test compounds and a constant concentration of chondroitin sulfate A (CSA) from bovine trachea were undertaken. Unbound CSA was detected using SYBR® green (SG), a fluorophore commonly used to detect DNA, which was observed to bind CSA. The presence of unbound CSA was measured using a fluorimeter, and the resulting data were fit to a computerized empirical model to calculate the IC50 of each novel compound.
Results: The compounds varied greatly in their affinities for CSA. A structure-function relationship was observed in the series with some compounds being active at -1uM.
Conclusions: ^GThese compounds could form the basis of therapeutic agents tailored to prevent the sequestration of PEs in pregnant women, thereby reducing the occurrence of maternal malaria in endemic areas.

Notes:
^A Necessary background information
^B  Problem
^C  All abbreviations are defined
^D  Study design
^E  Study objective
^F  Rationale
^G  Answers the question, appropriately qualified with “could”

Case G: Paragraph style, from an ethnic study

Mayhall JT. Saunders SR. Dimensional and discrete dental trait asymmetry relationships.
Source: American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Vol 69(3) (pp 403-411), 1986.

^AInuit (Eskimos) from the Foxe Basin region of the Northwest Territories, Canada, were studied ^Bto ascertain the amount of dimensional and morphological asymmetry in their dentitions. ^CThe results indicate that dimensional asymmetry does not appear to be greater on either the maxillary or mandibular teeth.^DBoth types of asymmetry show partial conformity to the model of tooth fields with an increasing amount of asymmetry as one goes distally in each tooth group. ^EThe morphological asymmetry exception, the mandibular incisors, follows Dahlberg’s ‘Field Concept’.  ^FRank-order correlations between the amount of dimensional asymmetry and morphological asymmetry reveal no detectable patterns. ^GThere appear to be no associations between the presence or absence of morphological asymmetry and the size of the tooth. ^HThis lack of association might be explained by differences in developmental timing of tooth dimensions and morphological traits; however, such a hypothesis requires experimental testing. ^IIn this population and those for which published results are available, it is practically impossible to overcome the ‘noise’ level and test recent hypotheses regarding random dental asymmetry

Notes:

Well-designed research does not always come to firm conclusions. Research that raises questions and problems also makes an important contribution. The language of this abstract is appropriately tentative.

^A  Abstract begins with the population studied
^B  Study objective
^C  Study conclusion. Note the qualified language:  indicate, does not appear
^D  Result 1
^E  Result 2
^F  Result 3
^G  Discussion of results. Again, note the qualified language: appear to be no
^H  Explanation. Note points of qualification: might be explained, however
^I   Final sentence identifies a major limitation of ethnic studies on this population: practically impossible to overcome

©2007, Dena Bain Taylor, PhD, University of Toronto
Toronto, Canada. All rights reserved